Matlab nonlinear least squares

Thus, for the dogleg and Matlab nonlinear least squares solvers, the sparsity detection in ADMAT 2.0 is used to evaluate the Jacobian matrices for the first experiment while the Jacobian matrices in the second and third experiments are evaluated by columns, i.e., \(J(\mathbf{x})\mathbf{e}_i\), where \(\mathbf{e}_i\) is the ith column of an ...

3. Link. If your curve fit is unconstrained and your residual has uniform variance s2, then a common approximation to the covariance matrix of the parameters is. Theme. Copy. Cov=inv (J'*J)*s2. where J is the Jacobian of the residual at the solution. Both LSQCURVEFIT and LSQNONLIN return the Jacobian as an optional output argument. Splitting the Linear and Nonlinear Problems. Notice that the fitting problem is linear in the parameters c(1) and c(2). This means for any values of lam(1) and lam(2), we can use the backslash operator to find the values of c(1) and c(2) that solve the least-squares problem. • Nonlinear least squares problem • Linear least squares problem • Gradient descent • Cholesky solver • QR solver • Gauss-Newton Method A quick detour Next • Nonlinear optimization • Issues with Gauss-Newton Method • Convexity • Levenberg-Marquardt Method • Optimality conditions • Nonlinear least squares on RiemannianAlgorithms for the Solution of the Non-linear Least-squares Problem, SIAM Journal on Numerical Analysis, Volume 15, Number 5, pages 977-991, 1978. Charles Lawson, Richard Hanson, Solving Least Squares Problems, Prentice-Hall. Source Code: nl2sol.f90, the source code. Examples and Tests: NL2SOL_test1 is a simple test.Feb 29, 2020 · This tutorial shows how to achieve a nonlinear least-squares data fit via Matlab scriptCheck out more Matlab tutorials:https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=...

Equivalently, write the objective as a squared norm. obj5 = norm (expr - ydata)^2; % norm squared prob5 = optimproblem (Objective=obj5); solver5 = solvers (prob5) solver5 = "lsqnonlin". The most general form that the software interprets as a least-squares problem is a square of a norm or else a sum of expressions Rn of this form: R n = a n + k ...Similarly, write nonlinear least-squares as a square of a norm or an explicit sums of squares of optimization expressions. This objective is an explicit sum of squares. ... You clicked a link that corresponds to this MATLAB command: Run the command by entering it in the MATLAB Command Window.The nonlinear partial least squares (PLS) method was developed in the area of chemical data analysis. A specific feature of PLS is that relations between sets of observed variables are modeled by ...After you take the log, it's linear in all the coefficients so I don't see why any non-linear stuff is needed. Here's a snippet from a demo of mine that may help you: Theme. Copy. % Do a least squares fit of the histogram to a Gaussian. % Assume y = A*exp (- (x-mu)^2/sigma^2) % Take log of both sides.Hi, I am trying to solve an optimization problem in Matlab. It is a nonlinear least squares problem. The goal is to derive the best-fit equations of seven straight lines (and other standard output e.g. residuals etc.). I've posted the problem description, and two images, one that describes the problem setting in detail, the other showing the set of 3D points I plotted for this, all here: http ...Scale-Variant Robust Kernel Optimization for Non-linear Least Squares Problems. Shounak Das Jason N. Gross. Engineering, Computer Science. ArXiv. 2022; TLDR. It is shown that the existing approach needs an additional manual tuning of a residual scale parameter which the new method directly learns from data and has similar or better performance.The method of iteratively reweighted least squares ( IRLS) is used to solve certain optimization problems with objective functions of the form of a p -norm : by an iterative method in which each step involves solving a weighted least squares problem of the form: [1] IRLS is used to find the maximum likelihood estimates of a generalized linear ...

For more information, see Large Scale Nonlinear Least Squares. PrecondBandWidth: Upper bandwidth of preconditioner for PCG, a nonnegative integer. ... You must have a MATLAB Coder license to generate code. The target hardware must support standard double-precision floating-point computations. You cannot generate code for single …In mathematics and computing, the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm (LMA or just LM), also known as the damped least-squares (DLS) method, is used to solve non-linear least squares problems. These minimization problems arise especially in least squares curve fitting.The LMA interpolates between the Gauss-Newton algorithm (GNA) and the method of gradient descent.Although these are nonlinear least-squares problems because the operators involved are nonlinear, ... Matlab code corresponding to this example is included as supplementary material. Fig. 1. Results for Landweber iteration. The plots show the total number of multiplications, the normalized cost function value (normalized so that the initial ...This section uses nonlinear least squares fitting x = lsqnonlin (fun,x0). The first line defines the function to fit and is the equation for a circle. The second line are estimated starting points. See the link for more info on this function. The output circFit is a 1x3 vector defining the [x_center, y_center, radius] of the fitted circle.8.4 Fitting Sums of Exponentials to Empirical Data In TOMLAB the problem of fitting sums of positively weighted exponential functions to empirical data may be formulated either as a nonlinear least squares problem or a separable nonlinear least squares problem [].Several empirical data series are predefined and artificial data series may also be generated.For more information, see Large Scale Nonlinear Least Squares. PrecondBandWidth: Upper bandwidth of preconditioner for PCG, a nonnegative integer. ... You must have a MATLAB Coder license to generate code. The target hardware must support standard double-precision floating-point computations. You cannot generate code for single …

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Non-linear parameter estimation (least squares) I need to find the parameters by minimizing the least square errors between predicted and experimental values. I also need to find the 95% confidence interval for each parameter. Being new to MATLAB, I am unsure how to go about solving this problem.The simplified code used is reported below. The problem is divided in four functions: parameterEstimation - (a wrapper for the lsqnonlin function) objectiveFunction_lsq - (the objective function for the param estimation) yFun - (the function returing the value of the variable y) objectiveFunction_zero - (the objective function of the non-linear ...In MATLAB, you can find B using the mldivide operator as B = X\Y. From the dataset accidents, load accident data in y and state population data in x. Find the linear regression relation y = β 1 x between the accidents in a state and the population of a state using the \ operator. The \ operator performs a least-squares regression.Basically a least square nonlinear problem with Matlab's function nonlin. I keep on getting: Initial point is a local minimum. Optimization completed because the size of the gradient at the initial point. is less than the value of the optimality tolerance. Optimization completed: The final point is the initial point.In certain cases when the best-fit function has a nonlinear dependence on parameters, the method for linear least-squares problems can still be applied after a suitable transformation. Example 3. Find the least-squares function of form. $$ x (t)=a_0e^ {a_1t}, \quad t>0, \ a_0>0 $$. for the data points.

The problem with your nonlinear regression is your initial estimate of A. You say you set the initial value to 1.0 "because it doesn't seem to matter".In MATLAB, you can find B using the mldivide operator as B = X\Y. From the dataset accidents, load accident data in y and state population data in x. Find the linear regression relation y = β 1 x between the accidents in a state and the population of a state using the \ operator. The \ operator performs a least-squares regression.For more information, see Large Scale Nonlinear Least Squares. PrecondBandWidth: Upper bandwidth of preconditioner for PCG, a nonnegative integer. ... You must have a MATLAB Coder license to generate code. The target hardware must support standard double-precision floating-point computations. You cannot generate code for single-precision or ... Introduction to Least-Squares Fitting. A regression model relates response data to predictor data with one or more coefficients. A fitting method is an algorithm that calculates the model coefficients given a set of input data. Curve Fitting Toolbox™ uses least-squares fitting methods to estimate the coefficients of a regression model. A nonlinear graph is a graph that depicts any function that is not a straight line; this type of function is known as a nonlinear function. A nonlinear graph shows a function as a ...Nonlinear least-squares solves min (∑|| F ( xi ) - yi || 2 ), where F ( xi ) is a nonlinear function and yi is data. The problem can have bounds, linear constraints, or nonlinear constraints. For the problem-based approach, create problem variables, and then represent the objective function and constraints in terms of these symbolic variables.The Levenberg-Marquardt and trust-region-reflective methods are based on the nonlinear least-squares algorithms also used in fsolve. The default trust-region-reflective algorithm is a subspace trust-region method and is based on the interior-reflective Newton method described in [1] and [2] .The method of iteratively reweighted least squares ( IRLS) is used to solve certain optimization problems with objective functions of the form of a p -norm : by an iterative method in which each step involves solving a weighted least squares problem of the form: [1] IRLS is used to find the maximum likelihood estimates of a generalized linear ...Value Description Supported Fits "auto" Default value for all interpolant fit types. Set ExtrapolationMethod to "auto" to automatically assign an extrapolation method when you use the fit function.. All interpolant fit types and cubicspline curve fits "none" No extrapolation. When you use fitOptions with the fit function to evaluate query points …As a general unconstrained minimization problem, the Newton method plays a central role in the development of numerical methods for nonlinear least squares solution. Most commonly used nonlinear least squares methods can be viewed as variations on Newton's method. The Newton method for general optimization is derived based upon the quadratic ...

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Introduction to Least-Squares Fitting. A regression model relates response data to predictor data with one or more coefficients.Linear and nonlinear least squares fitting is one of the most frequently encountered numerical problems. ALGLIB package includes several highly optimized least squares fitting algorithms available in several programming languages, including: ALGLIB for C++ , a high performance C++ library with great portability across hardware and software ...The nonlinear least squares estimation process uses a model of the form: ˜y = h(x) where h(x) represents the equations of a nonlinear system. An optimal estimate for a nonlinear system can then be found by iterating the nonlinear least squares solution, using Equation 8. ˆxk + 1 = ˆxk + (H ⊺ kHk) − 1H ⊺ k (˜y − h(ˆxk)) Hk = δh δˆxk.After years of hype, big investments, and a skyrocketing valuation, the mobile payments startup Square is coming to terms with the fact that even though its core business is wildly...A least-squares fitting method calculates model coefficients that minimize the sum of squared errors (SSE), which is also called the residual sum of squares. Given a set of n …Description. beta = nlinfit (X,Y,modelfun,beta0) returns a vector of estimated coefficients for the nonlinear regression of the responses in Y on the predictors in X using the model specified by modelfun. The coefficients are estimated using iterative least squares estimation, with initial values specified by beta0.The least-squares problem minimizes a function f ( x) that is a sum of squares. min x f ( x) = ‖ F ( x) ‖ 2 2 = ∑ i F i 2 ( x). (7) Problems of this type occur in a large number of practical applications, especially those that involve fitting model functions to data, such as nonlinear parameter estimation.Find more on Online Estimation in Help Center and MATLAB Answers Tags Add Tags adaptive control digital control estimation example function least squares online recursive rls system identifica...Fit parameters of an ODE using problem-based least squares. Compare lsqnonlin and fmincon for Constrained Nonlinear Least Squares. Compare the performance of lsqnonlin and fmincon on a nonlinear least-squares problem with nonlinear constraints. Write Objective Function for Problem-Based Least Squares. Nonlinear least-squares solves min (∑|| F ( xi ) - yi || 2 ), where F ( xi ) is a nonlinear function and yi is data. The problem can have bounds, linear constraints, or nonlinear constraints. For the problem-based approach, create problem variables, and then represent the objective function and constraints in terms of these symbolic variables.

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Use the weighted least-squares fitting method if the weights are known, or if the weights follow a particular form. The weighted least-squares fitting method introduces weights in the formula for the SSE, which becomes. S S E = ∑ i = 1 n w i ( y i − y ^ i) 2. where wi are the weights.The toolbox includes solvers for linear programming (LP), mixed-integer linear programming (MILP), quadratic programming (QP), second-order cone programming (SOCP), nonlinear programming (NLP), constrained linear least squares, nonlinear least squares, and nonlinear equations. You can define your optimization problem with functions and matrices ...The NASDAQ Times Square display is notable because it is the largest continuous sign in Times Square. Read about the NASDAQ Times Square display. Advertisement Times Square in New ...This example shows how to fit a nonlinear function to data using several Optimization Toolbox™ algorithms. Problem Setup. Consider the following data: Data = ... [0.0000 …As a reminder, our original motivation for performing nonlinear least-squares is to perform state estimationthroughmaximum likelihood ormaximum a posteriori estimationwithnonlinearsensor models. Section 2.5 of [1] is an excellent reference for more information on the topics covered inNonlinear Least-Squares Problems with the Gauss-Newton and Levenberg-Marquardt Methods. Alfonso Croeze1. Lindsey Pittman2. Winnie Reynolds1. 1Department of Mathematics Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA. 2Department of Mathematics University of Mississippi Oxford, MS. July 6, 2012.Only the linear and polynomial fits are true linear least squares fits. The nonlinear fits (power, exponential, and logarithmic) are approximated through transforming the model to a linear form and then applying a least squares fit. Taking the logarithm of a negative number produces a complex number. When linearizing, for simplicity, this ...Update: I don't think there is any direct way to do nonlinear pls in R or matlab. But I found a package kernlab that can be useful when you deal with kernels for nonlinearity. I think this can be a good start point. r. partial-least-squares.As a reminder, our original motivation for performing nonlinear least-squares is to perform state estimationthroughmaximum likelihood ormaximum a posteriori estimationwithnonlinearsensor models. Section 2.5 of [1] is an excellent reference for more information on the topics covered inNonlinear Optimization. Solve constrained or unconstrained nonlinear problems with one or more objectives, in serial or parallel. To set up a nonlinear optimization problem for solution, first decide between a problem-based approach and solver-based approach. See First Choose Problem-Based or Solver-Based Approach.Nonlinear Least Squares (NLS) is an optimization technique that can be used to build regression models for data sets that contain nonlinear features. Models for such data sets are nonlinear in their coefficients. Structure of this article: PART 1: The concepts and theory underlying the NLS regression model. This section has some math in it. ….

This video introduces nonlinear least squares problems. Th... Harvard Applied Math 205 is a graduate-level course on scientific computing and numerical methods.Improve Model Fit with Weights. This example shows how to fit a polynomial model to data using both the linear least-squares method and the weighted least-squares method for comparison. Generate sample data from different normal distributions by using the randn function. for k=1:20. r = k*randn([20,1]) + (1/20)*(k^3); rnorm = [rnorm;r];An example of a nonlinear least squares fit to a noisy Gaussian function (12) is shown above, where the thin solid curve is the initial guess, the dotted curves are intermediate iterations, and the heavy solid curve is the fit to which the solution converges.A Punnett square helps predict the possible ways an organism will express certain genetic traits, such as purple flowers or blue eyes. Advertisement Once upon a time (the mid-19th ...Ax = b. f(x) = 0. overdetermined. min ‖Ax − b‖2. min ‖f(x)‖2. We now define the nonlinear least squares problem. Definition 41 (Nonlinear least squares problem) Given a function f(x) mapping from Rn to Rm, find x ∈ Rn such that ‖f(x)‖2 is minimized. As in the linear case, we consider only overdetermined problems, where m > n.Nonlinear Least Squares (NLS) is an optimization technique that can be used to build regression models for data sets that contain nonlinear features. Models for such data sets are nonlinear in their coefficients. Structure of this article: PART 1: The concepts and theory underlying the NLS regression model. This section has some math in it.The rest of this section describes how to use MATLAB to find a particular solution to Ax =b, as in step 2. Square Systems. The most common situation involves a square coefficient matrix A and a single right-hand side column vector b. Nonsingular Coefficient Matrix. If the matrix A is nonsingular, then the solution, x = A\b, is the same size as ...Although these are nonlinear least-squares problems because the operators involved are nonlinear, ... Matlab code corresponding to this example is included as supplementary material. Fig. 1. Results for Landweber iteration. The plots show the total number of multiplications, the normalized cost function value (normalized so that the initial ...Learn more about inverse, least squares, minimization, nonlinear, parameter estimation, solver-based I have written the following forward problem. My ultimate goal is to solve the inverse problem for the parameter K.Indices Commodities Currencies Stocks Matlab nonlinear least squares, Feb 1, 2018 · In certain cases when the best-fit function has a nonlinear dependence on parameters, the method for linear least-squares problems can still be applied after a suitable transformation. Example 3. Find the least-squares function of form. $$ x (t)=a_0e^ {a_1t}, \quad t>0, \ a_0>0 $$. for the data points. , 3. Link. If your curve fit is unconstrained and your residual has uniform variance s2, then a common approximation to the covariance matrix of the parameters is. Theme. Copy. Cov=inv (J'*J)*s2. where J is the Jacobian of the residual at the solution. Both LSQCURVEFIT and LSQNONLIN return the Jacobian as an optional output …, Partial least-squares (PLS) regression is a dimension reduction method that constructs new predictor variables that are linear combinations of the original predictor variables. To fit a PLS regression model that has multiple response variables, use plsregress. Note. A multivariate linear regression model is different from a multiple linear ..., Pure MATLAB solution (No toolboxes) In order to perform nonlinear least squares curve fitting, you need to minimise the squares of the residuals. This means you need a minimisation routine. Basic MATLAB comes with the fminsearch function which is based on the Nelder-Mead simplex method., and the ordinary least-squares estimates for the coefficients can be computed from a∗= [T TT]−1 T y. (5) 3 Constrained Ordinary Linear Least Squares Now, suppose that in addition to minimizing the sum-of-squares-of-errors, the model must also satisfy other criteria. For example, suppose that the curve-fit must pass through a particular ..., In MATLAB, the LSCOV function can perform weighted-least-square regression. x = lscov(A,b,w) where w is a vector length m of real positive weights , returns the weighted least squares solution to the linear system A*x = b , that is , x minimizes (b - A*x)'*diag(w)*(b - A*x). w typically contains either counts or inverse variances., 'trust-region-dogleg' is the only algorithm that is specially designed to solve nonlinear equations. The others attempt to minimize the sum of squares of the function. The 'trust-region' algorithm is effective on sparse problems. It can use special techniques such as a Jacobian multiply function for large-scale problems., The matlab code includes the function lsqnonlin which solve a non linear least square problem. I have searched for a similar function in python and found least_squares from scipy.optimize. By the documentation this is the right function to use. I have tried the function with some different inputs and was glad with the result - same as matlab., The function The LMFnlsq.m serves for finding optimal solution of an overdetermined system of nonlinear equations in the least-squares sense. The standard Levenberg- Marquardt algorithm was modified by Fletcher and coded in FORTRAN many years ago (see the Reference). This version of LMFnlsq is its complete MATLAB implementation complemented by ..., Least squares problems have two types. Linear least-squares solves min|| C * x - d || 2, possibly with bounds or linear constraints. See Linear Least Squares. Nonlinear least-squares solves min (∑|| F ( xi ) – yi || 2 ), where F ( xi ) is a nonlinear function and yi is data. See Nonlinear Least Squares (Curve Fitting)., If mu, Sigma, kappa, and y0 are your decision variables, then this is a nonlinear constraint, and the only solver that addresses problems with nonlinear constraints is fmincon. You would include the constraint as follows (I assume that the vector x is [mu, Sigma, kappa, y0]): Theme. Copy. function [c,ceq] = confun (x), Summary Assuming you have a weight matrix W (which can be a sparse diagonal matrix), and the nonlinear fitting function F, then the fitting function using lambda-expression and premultiply the measurement data ydata with the Cholesky factor R as given below.. R = chol( W, 'upper'); F_w = @(x, xdata) R * F( x, xdata); ydata_w = R * ydata; x_w = lsqcurvefit(F_w, x0, xdata, ydata_w), I would like to perform a linear least squares fit to 3 data points. The help files are very confusing, to the point where i can't figure out whether this is a base function of Matlab, I need the curve fitting toolbox, optimization toolbox, or both., MATLAB Simulation. I created a simple model of Polynomial of 3rd Degree. It is easy to adapt the code to any Linear model. Above shows the performance of the Sequential Model vs. Batch LS. I build a model of 25 Samples. One could see the performance of the Batch Least Squares on all samples vs. the Sequential Least squares., Constrained Optimization Definition. Constrained minimization is the problem of finding a vector x that is a local minimum to a scalar function f ( x ) subject to constraints on the allowable x: min x f ( x) such that one or more of the following holds: c(x) ≤ 0, ceq(x) = 0, A·x ≤ b, Aeq·x = beq, l ≤ x ≤ u. There are even more ..., In your case, since you already have a dynamic model and some known parameters, you can use a method like non-linear least squares or advanced techniques like the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) or Particle Filters for parameter estimation. These methods can help you refine the unknown parameters of your model to better match the observed data., I did the weighted least-square method to obtain my fit-function which is the solid line you can see on this plot (there is two data-set actually, red and blue). ... + C $ is not linear with respect to $\omega$. One have to use a more sophisticated method in case of non-linear equation. $\endgroup$ - JJacquelin. Jun 4, 2019 at 18:44, a limitation in the functions for bound-constrained nonlinear least-squares problems provided by the Matlab Optimization Toolbox [18]; in fact, these functions cannot solve underdetermined problems, i.e. problems where the dimensions of F are such that m < n. It is important to note that we may attempt to formulate (1.2) as an uncon-strained ..., I have done this in Excel using LINEST and in MatLab using polyfit (). I obtain the same values in both packages. The second method is non-linear least squares where I fit my data to E = 3 4R∞(Z − σ)2 E = 3 4 R ∞ ( Z − σ) 2. I have done this in Excel using Solver and in MatLab using fit (). Once again I obtain the same value for R∞ ..., To solve the system of simultaneous linear equations for unknown coefficients, use the MATLAB ® backslash operator ... Curve Fitting Toolbox uses the nonlinear least-squares method to fit a nonlinear model to data. A nonlinear model is defined as an equation that is nonlinear in the coefficients, or has a combination of linear and nonlinear ..., Although these are nonlinear least-squares problems because the operators involved are nonlinear, ... Matlab code corresponding to this example is included as supplementary material. Fig. 1. Results for Landweber iteration. The plots show the total number of multiplications, the normalized cost function value (normalized so that the initial ..., This section uses nonlinear least squares fitting x = lsqnonlin (fun,x0). The first line defines the function to fit and is the equation for a circle. The second line are estimated starting points. See the link for more info on this function. The output circFit is a 1x3 vector defining the [x_center, y_center, radius] of the fitted circle., Design an FIR lowpass filter. The passband ranges from DC to 0. 4 5 π rad/sample. The stopband ranges from 0. 5 5 π rad/sample to the Nyquist frequency. Produce three different designs, changing the weights of the bands in the least-squares fit. In the first design, make the stopband weight higher than the passband weight by a factor of 100., 6 Least Squares Adjustment and find the partial derivatives of ϵ with respect to the intercept θ0 and the slope θ1 ∂ϵ ∂θ0 ∑ n i=1 (yi −(θ0 +θ1xi))(−1) = −∑n i=1 yi +nθ0 +θ1 ∑ i=1 xi (23) ∂ϵ ∂θ1 ∑n i=1 (yi −(θ0 +θ1xi))(−xi) = −∑ n i=1 xiyi +θ0 ∑n i=1 xi +θ1 ∑ i=1 x2 i. (24) Setting the partial derivatives equal to zero and denoting the solutions ..., This video introduces nonlinear least squares problems. Th... Harvard Applied Math 205 is a graduate-level course on scientific computing and numerical methods., Ok, we see that the curve does not fit well at the bottom end. This stems from two reasons. your fit was done in terms of a sum of squares, but the plot is show on loglog axes., Splitting the Linear and Nonlinear Problems. Notice that the fitting problem is linear in the parameters c(1) and c(2). This means for any values of lam(1) and lam(2), we can use the backslash operator to find the values of c(1) and c(2) that solve the least-squares problem., For a stay in Times Square, it doesn't get much better than the Crowne Plaza. But the room, numerous fees and flaky reservation system might make you reconsider. In my years of wor..., To solve the system of simultaneous linear equations for unknown coefficients, use the MATLAB ® backslash operator ... Curve Fitting Toolbox uses the nonlinear least-squares method to fit a nonlinear model to data. A nonlinear model is defined as an equation that is nonlinear in the coefficients, or has a combination of linear and nonlinear ..., The model and codes I use are the ssc_lithium_cell_1RC_estim.slx and ssc_lithium_cell_1RC_estim_ini.mat and the data used for the estimation is the one from LiBatt_PulseData.mat that comes together with the files when you download it. PS.: I've had to change the solver type in the configurations manually to ode15s., Generate Example Data. To illustrate the differences between ML and GLS fitting, generate some example data. Assume that x i is one dimensional and suppose the true function f in the nonlinear logistic regression model is the Michaelis-Menten model parameterized by a 2 × 1 vector β: f ( x i, β) = β 1 x i β 2 + x i., Nonlinear Optimization. Solve constrained or unconstrained nonlinear problems with one or more objectives, in serial or parallel. To set up a nonlinear optimization problem for solution, first decide between a problem-based approach and solver-based approach. See First Choose Problem-Based or Solver-Based Approach., The reader may have noticed that we have been careful to say "the least-squares solutions" in the plural, and "a least-squares solution" using the indefinite article. This is because a least-squares solution need not be unique: indeed, if the columns of \(A\) are linearly dependent, then \(Ax=b_{\text{Col}(A)}\) has infinitely many ...